Photo Credit: courtesy Winston Vickers
Goal: Enhance and expand areas occupied by mountain lion in San Diego County in large interconnected blocks (>1,000 acres) of suitable natural vegetation surrounded by a limited number of high use roads, and increase connectivity (and reduce potential road mortality) between occupied and suitable habitat areas to allow expansion and movement of mountain lion occurrences within San Diego County and adjacent counties to increase effective population size to sustainable levels and work to reduce depredation on livestock to ensure persistence in the MSPA over the long-term (>100 years).
Management units: 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10
In 2017, finalize efforts begun in 2016, using available regional mountain lion movement data, to develop quantitative models of mountain lion movement in the MSPA to validate likely movement patterns and to assist with linkage and land protection prioritization.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| RES-1 | Project metadata, data, and report submitted to MSP web portal | completed | Mountain Lion Connectivity and Genetics Study- North San Diego County, Mountain Lion Critical Linkage Evaluation in MSPA |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Mountain lion connectivity model completed by 2017 | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Loss of connectivity | LOSCON |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 5, 8, 9, 10
In 2017-2018, guided by information from telemetry studies and mountain lion movement modelling, prioritize potential mountain lion crossing locations for SR 78, SR 76, SR 79, I-15, and other priority roads. For each priority crossing location, conduct detailed linkage assessments to identify existing impediments to successful crossings and recommendations for wildlife crossing infrastructure improvement (culvert maintenance, undercrossing construction, fencing, etc.) and habitat/land protection needs.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| EVAL-1 | Use telemetry and modelling data to inform important wildlife crossing locations along SR 78, SR 76 and SR 79 where follow up surveys will be conducted to identify specific locations and recommendations for wildlife crossing infrastructure improvements. | in progress | Mountain Lion Connectivity and Genetics Study- North San Diego County |
| EVAL-2 | At each location, detailed field assessments will be performed to identify existing impediments to successful crossings, specific recommendations for wildlife crossing infrastructure improvements, and land protection needs in the area defined in order to provide for long term successful connectivity between protected lands for mountain lions and other wildlife. | in progress | Mountain Lion Road Crossing and Deterrent Methods Evaluations |
| EVAL-3 | Project metadata, data, and reports submitted to MSP web portal. | in progress | Mountain Lion Connectivity and Genetics Study- North San Diego County |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| By 2019, linkage evaluations completed for mountain lion crossing locations for SR 76, SR 79, SR 78 and other priority roads | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Loss of connectivity | LOSCON |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 5, 8, 9, 10
Beginning in 2017 and based on linkage assessment results, prepare Linkage Implementation Plan that outlines specific locations and recommendations for improving mountain lion and deer connectivity across SR 78, 76, 79 and other priority roads in MU s 5, 8, 9, and 10.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| PRP-1 | Linkage Implementation Plans will identify the locations and design criteria for needed wildlife crossing infrastructure for priority roads and highways in MUs 5, 8, 9, and 10, including locations for road under/overcrossings and barrier fences to funnel lions and other wildlife to crossing locations for priority highways and roads | waiting for precedent action | |
| PRP-2 | Submit data and reports to MSP web portal. | waiting for precedent action |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Mountain lion and deer linkage implementation plan completed for MU 5, 8, 9 and 10 by 2019 | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Loss of connectivity | LOSCON |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 5, 8, 9, 10
Beginning in 2019, implement linkage enhancement actions outlined in linkage evaluations and linkage implementation plans
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| IMP-1 | As funding becomes available, implement priority wildlife crossing improvements for MU 5, 8, 9, 10 and other priority roads. | waiting for precedent action |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Management actions to improve connectivity for mountain lions and deer implemented | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Loss of connectivity | LOSCON |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 5, 8, 9, 10
Beginning in 2019, monitor implementation and effectiveness of linkage enhancements actions for mountain lions and other species, including mule deer.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| IMP-1 | Submit Metadata, data, and report to MSP web portal. | waiting for precedent action |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Monitoring data submitted to MSP web portal within one year of management actions being completed. | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Loss of connectivity | LOSCON |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 5, 8, 9, 10
Beginning in 2017, support efforts by UC Davis Wildlife Health Center and others to test the effectiveness of various methods to deter mountain lions and other native predators from preying on livestock/domestic animals in locations where depredation permits have been issued in recent past, with the goal of reducing depredation permits by 50%.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| DEV-1 | Research existing predator deterrent systems for their applicability to southern California wildlife communities. | in progress | Mountain Lion Road Crossing and Deterrent Methods Evaluations |
| DEV-2 | Implement quantitative pilot study to evaluate effectiveness of various methods in deterring native predators from taking livestock. | in progress | Mountain Lion Road Crossing and Deterrent Methods Evaluations |
| DEV-3 | From these studies, establish a set of "Best Practices" for protecting livestock from native predators. | in progress | Mountain Lion Road Crossing and Deterrent Methods Evaluations |
| DEV-4 | Support efforts in the development of outreach materials to livestock owners on proper husbandry and native predator deterrence techniques to protect livestock from native predators. | in progress | Mountain Lion Road Crossing and Deterrent Methods Evaluations |
| DEV-5 | Submit project metadata, data, and BMPs to MSP web portal. | in progress | Mountain Lion Road Crossing and Deterrent Methods Evaluations |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Best Practices for Reducing native predator take of domestic livestock developed and disseminated to landowners. | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 5, 8, 9, 10
Beginning in 2019, implement Best Management Practices for deterring mountain lions and other predators from preying on livestock/domestic animals with the goal of reducing depredation permits by 50%.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| IMP-1 | Submit Metadata, data, and management actions to MSP web portal. | waiting for precedent action |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| BMPs implemented to reduce mountain lion predation on domestic animals | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 5, 8, 9, 10
Beginning in 2019, monitor the effectiveness of BMPs implemented to deter mountain lions and other predators from preying on livestock/domestic animals.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| DEV-1 | Implement field studies to assess effectiveness of BMPs in reducing livestock predation by mountain lions and other native predators | Unknown | |
| DEV-2 | Monitor rate of depredation permits to evaluate if BMPs are having desired effect on reducing lion mortalities. | Unknown | |
| DEV-3 | Submit project metadata, monitoring data and results to MSP web portal. | Unknown |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Monitoring effectiveness of BMPs implemented within one year of management actions | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10
In 2020, develop a long-term monitoring strategy that integrates BMPs to document mountain lion population, connectivity and distribution within the MSPA. Monitoring plan will incorporate, as feasible: 1) possible non invasive methods for monitoring genetic connectivity (scat, hair snares, tracks, etc.), 2) methods for integrating camera trap data from various sources to answer questions regarding lion movement and distribution, and 3) a regional database to track information on lion mortalities and cause (vehicle strikes, depredation permits, illegal take, etc.) to identify problem areas and to inform management actions.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| PRP-1 | Work with UCD to evaluate the feasibility of various mountain lion DNA testing methods (scat, hair snare, etc.) for use in future long term monitoring of genetic connectivity | Unknown | |
| PRP-2 | Identify and collate data from various relevant camera trap studies (SDTT, UCD-WHC, USGS, Feral Pig Study, land managers) and evaluate how data could be integrated as part of a long term monitoring strategy for documenting mountain lion movement and distribution within the MSPA. | Unknown | |
| PRP-3 | Identify existing sources for lion mortality data, conduct outreach, and work to develop a system for collating and integrating lion mortality data from various sources into the MSP Database. | Unknown |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Monitoring plan for documenting mountain lion connectivity are developed and integrated with available track and camera data from other sources to identify the level of | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Loss of connectivity | LOSCON |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
Management units: 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 10
In 2021, implement monitoring actions as identified in the Mountain lion monitoring plan.
| Action | Statement | Action status | Projects |
|---|---|---|---|
| IMP-1 | Submit project metadata, data, and reports to MSP web portal | Unknown |
| Criteria | Deadline year |
|---|---|
| Monitoring program for mountain lions implemented by 2021 | 2021 |
| Threat Name | Threat Code |
|---|---|
| Human uses of the Preserves | HUMUSE |
| Loss of connectivity | LOSCON |
| Urban development | URBDEV |
| Metric | Condition | Trend | Confidence |
|---|---|---|---|
1. Genetic DiversityEffective population size in San Diego County based on genetic analysis |
Significant Concern |
Unknown |
High |
2. Conserved HabitatNumber of contiguous habitat patches greater than 12,400 acres |
Significant Concern |
Improving |
High |
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Artesian Creek Restoration
Approximately 300 acres along Artesian Creek, a tributary of the San Dieguito River, was restored to coastal sage or native riparian. The majority of restored land was previously used for grazing, with an additional two miles of riparian habitat. The project is located between Camino Del Sur and Del Dios Highway, just south and southwest of Lake Hodges. The restoration has been completed, but annual treatment of invasive species remains including ongoing treatment of eucalyptus, tamarix and palms. The focal invasive species included: mustard, French broom, Scotch broom, Spanish Fleabane, arundo, Austrailian salt bush, Brazilian Pepper, caster bean, lapidium latifolia, garland chrysanthemum, bridal creeper, Italian thistle, fountain grass, dittrichia graveolens, artichoke, eucalyptus, tree tobacco, acacia, palms, pampas grass, pride of Maderia, tamarix, and fennel.
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Connectivity Strategic Plan for Western San Diego County Science Session
A strategic plan for connectivity (CSP) of preserve lands in western San Diego County was developed for the San Diego Association of Government's Environmental Mitigation Program Working Group (EMPWG) in 2011. It was prepared by the SDMMP utilizing the input from a science workshop held in 2010. Many of the high priority items in the CSP have been completed and the data collected over those several years were utilized to inform management decisions. In 2014, there was a need to update and refocus the connectivity strategies and priorities for implementation. The purpose of this meeting was to gather input for the updated CSP. It followed a similar format to the 2010 connectivity workshop. The meeting consisted of a review of completed and in process projects, followed by breakout groups, and then an integration of ideas and recap session. The breakout groups were: (1) Large Animals and Landscape Connectivity; (2) Small Animals; and (3) Pollinators. The meeting focused on:
1. Identifying species to focus questions on connectivity; 2. Identifying questions and objectives to be considered for connectivity for species, and 3. Identifying available methodologies for addressing the questions and objectives. The updated CSP is found in Volume 3 of the Management Strategic Plan.
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Mountain Lion Connectivity and Genetics Study- North San Diego County
The purpose of this study is to provide the data needed regarding which lands in north San Diego County are likely utilized by mountain lions, and to assess connectivity within and between current and proposed future conserved lands in MSP Management Units (MU) 5, 6 and 8 and conserved and unconserved mountain lion habitat in adjacent Riverside, and Orange Counties. The results from this study of mountain lion movement, habitat use, gene flow, and highway crossings will be available to inform critical decisions regarding the prioritization of lands for conservation and the potential need and location of highway modifications to enhance connectivity for mountain lions and other wildlife. For this study, the UCD-WHC team will be conducting genetic analyses, resource selection and movement modeling, analysis of potential crossing points of highways.
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Mountain Lion Critical Linkage Evaluation in MSPA
As a part of its ongoing Southern California Mountain Lion project, this study assesses mountain lion use of core conserved lands and linkages in western San Diego County. GPS-collaring of mountain lions was undertaken in order to acquire location and movement data from individual lions utilizing core conserved areas and linkages that have been designated by the county. Six mountain lions were GPS-collared in this study (5 males and 1 female). All 6 circulated extensively in one or more of the targeted conserved cores and linkages, as well as on adjacent conserved and unconserved lands. Of the 9 core conserved areas assessed, 6 were used regularly by collared mountain lions. Of the 11 linkages identified for assessment, only 3 were demonstrated to be utilized for regular movement from one core area to another. One other linkage between core conserved areas was demonstrated that was not pre-identified on the connectivity maps. Roads and associated development, even rural development, appear to be the primary limiters of connectivity between conserved lands.
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Mountain Lion Road Crossing and Deterrent Methods Evaluations
This proposed contract expands upon work conducted under contracts #5004037 and #5004593 between SANDAG and the UC Davis Wildlife Health Center to study mountain lions and their habitat use and movement patterns in San Diego County for conservation purposes. Work under this contract will help to address connectivity and survival threats for mountain lions, other wildlife, livestock, and humans by creating guidance for reducing wildlife-vehicle collisions, improving wildlife connectivity, and reducing mortality of livestock, mountain lions, and other wildlife. Task 1: Conduct highway crossing assessments; Task 2: Test Lion hazing and deterrent devices; Task 3: Write final report.
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MSCP Wildlife Corridor Monitoring
A CBI study evaluating several MSCP habitat linkages and corridors critical to regional wildlife movement in the MSCP preserve. The study evaluated the functionality of the linkages, the large mammals and mesopredators using the linkages, constraints to animal movement, and underpass function.
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San Diego Tracking Team Transect data verification
The San Diego Tracking Team is undertaking systematic data verification/review by deploying trail cameras at survey locations (placement to be determined by the transect leader) for one year (or two opposite seasons) per survey location, in rotation and/or as cameras become available. Feedback will be used to modify protocol where appropriate but primarily as a supplemental data source.
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SR 94 Wildlife Infrastructure Plan
Proposed road improvements to SR 94 provide an opportunity to mitigate the potential barrier effects of the highway. This project identifies where improvements to existing infrastructure on SR-94 could improve connectivity across the South County preserves, using Best Management Practices from the scientific literature; recommends wildlife movement monitoring to identify where new crossings are needed; and identifies where additional conservation would enhance the integrity of South County linkages. The review prioritizes infrastructure improvements of 35 existing undercrossings inspected by wildlife experts in the field along 14.6 miles of SR-94 where the highway bisects conserved lands. The majority of the recommendations for infrastructure improvement focus on increasing the diameter, and thus the openness ratio (cross-sectional area divided by length), of the undercrossing itself, removing vegetation and debris blocking the undercrossing, restoring habitat in the approach to the undercrossing, and installing fencing to both (1) keep animals off the highway and (2) funnel wildlife to the undercrossings.
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SR-67 Multi-species Connectivity Planning
A comprehensive multi-species analysis of connectivity for the area surrounding SR-67 in central San Diego County. Multiple modeling approaches are being applied to develop a wildlife crossing infrastructure plan for SR-67 and to design landscape linkages at the subregional level. This analysis directly address functional connectivity within the study area.
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Relatively abundant throughout the western U.S.; extirpated from nearly all of its historic eastern range [1,2]. Occurs in suitable habitat throughout Mexico, the majority of the Western U.S., western Canada, and a small population in southern Florida [3]. Restricted to mountainous, relatively unpopulated areas [4].
Occurrences found in Cleveland National Forest, Anza Borrego Desert State Park, Santa Ysabel East Open Space, Santa Ysabel West Open Space Preserve, Cuyamaca Rancho State Park, Vallecito Stage Station Regional Park and Historic Site, El Capitan Open Space Preserve, Canada de San Vicente, SDGE Sunrise Powerlink Parcels Chocolate canyon, Hellhole Canyon Preserve, Boden Canyon Ecological Reserve, Los Penasquitos Canyon Preserve, Hodges Reservoir Open Space, City of Escondido Open Space, Torrey Pines State Natural Reserve, San Diego National Wildlife Refuge, Hollenbeck Canyon Wildlife Area, Otay Ranch Preserve, Murphy Canyon, San Vicente Highlands Open Space Preserve, Del Mar Mesa Open Space, San Dieguito River Park, Carmel Mountain Preserve, Sycamore Canyon and Goodan Ranch Preserves, San Elijo Lagoon Ecological Reserve, Santa Margarita Preserve, and Brown Hervey's Trust.
SSC
Preferred resting, hunting, and denning sites have vegetative and topographic cover, in addition to steep slopes and high elevations [3]. Structure of vegetation and topography most important criteria for determining habitat use [5]. Avoids open agricultural lands, sagebrush grasslands, open meadows, and pastures. Can thrive in extremely dry climates with limited rainfall [3]. Found from sea level to 4500 m [4].
Formerly included in the genus Felis and then placed in the genus Puma[6,7; both cited from 4;8] . Mitochondrial DNA analysis revealed genetic uniformity across all regions of North America, relative to Central and South American populations [9; cited from 4]. Genetic viability and long-term persistence of some populations in southern California are in jeopardy [10,11; both cited from 12].
Active during crepuscular periods; nocturnal pattern adopted in the proximity of human disturbance [3]. Peak activity within 2 hours of sunset and sunrise in absence of human disturbance [4]. Active throughout the year. Most hunting occurs dawn or dusk [13; cited from 4]. May have multiple strategies of migration patterns that allow mountain lions dependent on migratory prey to cope with changing prey densities [14].
Polygynous [3,15]; males do not contribute to rearing young [3]. Reproduce any season, though they do have seasonal birth pulses [16,17]. Estrous cycle lasts an average 8 days [18;19 cited from 3] and gestation about 82-100 days [4]. Kitten births peak during June through July [15], although can continue through September [17]. Litters range from 2 to 4 [16,17]. Young remain with their mother for 12 months [17] to 24 months [4,20,21] and are weaned after 2 to 3 months [4]. Primarily solitary except when raising young, dispersing with siblings, or mating [3,4,15].
Generalist predators [22,23; cited from 3] that primarily eat vertebrate prey [5; cited from 3] with deer often the most frequent prey type [4]. Tendency to kill the older males or young more frequently in prey populations [20,24] due to vulnerabilities from infirmities, solitary habits, and small size [15]. Unused remains covered later for consumption. Stalks from ground [25].
Dispersal of young from the mother coincides with the female coming into estrous as adult males will kill young [23,26,27; all cited from 3; 28]. Dispersal potentially results from mother abandoning the young [21] and there is likely some aggression directed towards the young to prevent them from following her [29; cited from 3]. Can disperse nearly 500 km from their natal home range [23; cited from 3]. Males more likely to disperse from their natal ranges than are the females, and males tend to disperse further [22; cited from 3;30]. Freeways in the area are almost complete barriers to mountain lion movement [11].
Principal threats include human caused mortality from vehicle strikes, depredation permits, poaching, public safety kills, wildfire, and poison [31,32]. Other important threats include habitat loss and fragmentation with loss of connectivity leading to demographic isolation and genetic restriction [1,10,11,33,34; cited from 12].
[1] Burdett, C.L., K.R. Crooks, D.M. Theobald, K.R. Wilson, E.E. Boydston, L.M. Lyren, R.N. Fisher, T.W. Vickers, S.A. Morrison, and W.M. Boyce. 2010. Interfacing models of wildlife habitat and human development to predict the future distribution of puma habitat. Ecosphere 1, no. 1: 1-21.
[2] Logan, Kenneth A., and Linda L. Sweanor. Desert puma: evolutionary ecology and conservation of an enduring carnivore. Island Press, 2001.
[3] Pierce, B.M. and V.C. Bleich. 2003. Mountain lion. Wild Mammals of North America. The Johns Hopkins Press, Baltimore: 744-757.
[4] NatureServe. 2015. NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life [web application]. Version 7.1. NatureServe, Arlington, Virginia. Available from: http://explorer.natureserve.org. Accessed: October 11, 2016.
[5] Lindzey, F. G. 1987. Mountain lion. Wild Furbearer Management and Conservation in North America. Ontario Trappers Association, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Toronto: 657-668.
[6] Jones, C., R.S. Hoffman, D.W. Rice, M.D. Engstrom, R.D. Bradley, D.J. Schmidly, C.A. Jones, and R.J. Baker. 1997. Revised checklist of North American mammals north of Mexico, 1997. Occasional Papers, Museum of Texas Tech University 173:120.
[7] Wilson, Don E., and DeeAnn M. Reeder, eds. Mammal species of the world: a taxonomic and geographic reference. Vol. 1. JHU Press, 2005.
[8] Corbet, G.B. and J.E. Hill. 1994. Wilson, DE, and DM Reeder (eds.). Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference, Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington, DC, xviii+ 1206 pp. Journal of Mammalogy 75, no. 1: 239-243.
[9] Culver, M., W. E. Johnson, J. Pecon-Slattery, and S. J. O'Brien. 2000. Genomic ancestry of the American puma (Puma concolor). Journal of Heredity 91, no. 3: 186-197.
[10] Ernest H.B., Vickers T.W., Morrison S.A., Buchalski M.R., Boyce W.M. 2014. Fractured Genetic Connectivity Threatens a Southern California Puma (Puma concolor) Population. PLoS ONE 9(10): e107985.
[11] Riley, S.P.D, L.E.K. Serieys, J.P. Pollinger, J.A. Sikich, L. Dalbeck, R.K. Wayne, and H.B. Ernest. 2014. Individual behaviors dominate the dynamics of an urban mountain lion population isolated by roads. Current Biology 24, no. 17: 1989-1994.
[12] Vickers, T. W., J.N. Sanchez, C.K. Johnson, S.A. Morrison, R. Botta, T. Smith, B.S. Cohen, P.R. Huber, H.B. Ernest, and W.M. Boyce. 2015. Survival and mortality of pumas (Puma concolor) in a fragmented, urbanizing landscape. PloS one 10, no. 7: e0131490.
[13] Jones, J. K. Jr., D.M. Armstrong, R.S. Hoffman, and D.C. Jones. 1983. Mammals of the northern Great Plains.
[14] Pierce, B.M., V.C. Bleich, J.D. Wehausen, and R.T. Bowyer. 1999. Migratory patterns of mountain lions: implications for social regulation and conservation. Journal of Mammalogy 80, no. 3: 986-992.
[15] Currier, M.J.P. 1983. Felis concolor. Mammalian Species Archive 200: 1-7.
[16] Ashman, D., G. C. Christensen, M. L. Hess, G. K. Tsukamoto, and M. S. Wichersham. 1983. The mountain lion in Nevada. Nevada Fish and Game Department, Federal Aid in Wildlife Restoration Final Report. Project W-48-15.
[17] Robinette, W.L., J.S. Gashwiler, and O.W. Morris. 1961. Notes on cougar productivity and life history. Journal of Mammalogy 42, no. 2: 204-217.
[18] Rabb, G.B. 1959. Reproductive and vocal behavior in captive pumas. Journal of Mammalogy 40, no. 4: 616-617.
[19] Eaton, R. L., and K. A. Verlander. 1977. Reproduction in the puma: biology, behavior and ontogeny. World’s Cats 3: 45-70.
[20] Hornocker, M.G. 1969. Winter territoriality in mountain lions. The Journal of Wildlife Management: 457-464.
[21] Seidensticker, J.C., M.G. Hornocker, W.V. Wiles, and J.P. Messick. 1973. Mountain lion social organization in the Idaho Primitive Area. Wildlife Monographs 35: 3-60.
[22] Anderson, A.E., D.C. Bowden, and D.C. Kattner. 1992. The puma on Uncompahgre plateau, Colorado. No. 40. Colorado Division of Wildlife.
[23] Logan K.A.. and L. Sweanor. 1999. Puma. Ecology and Management of large mammals in North America. S. Demarais and P.R. Kausman, eds. Pp.347-377. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
[24] Spalding, D. J. and J. Lesowski. 1971. Winter food of the cougar in south-central British Columbia. The Journal of Wildlife Management: 378-381.
[25] Beier, P., D. Choate, and R.H. Barrett. 1995. Movement patterns of mountain lions during different behaviors. Journal of Mammalogy 76, no. 4: 1056-1070.
[26] Spreadbury, B. 1989. Cougar ecology and related management implications and strategies in southeastern British Columbia. Environmental Design, University of Calgary.
[27] Young, S.P. and E.A. Goldman. 19466. Puma, mysterious American cat.
[28] Ackerman, B.B., F.G. Lindzey, and T.P. Hemker. 1984. Cougar food habits in southern Utah. The Journal of Wildlife Management: 147-155.
[29] Hansen, K. 1992. Cougar: the American lion. Northland Pub
[30] Sweanor, L.L., KA. Logan, and MG. Hornocker. 2000. Cougar dispersal patterns, metapopulation dynamics, and conser